Gender and Behavior: A Socio-Cultural Analysis and Behavioral Implications for Gender Equality
Keywords:
Sex, Identity, Individual differences, Gender stereotypeAbstract
This article aims to analyze the relationship between gender and behavior, emphasizing psychological and socio-cultural dimensions that shape gender roles, expressions, and behavioral patterns. The study adopts a theoretical review and synthesis of existing literature to conceptualize gender as a social construct influencing individual behavior across various contexts. The findings indicate that gender significantly affects self-perception, role selection, and adaptation in daily life, particularly in occupational, educational, and interpersonal domains. Understanding gender as a flexible and socially constructed dimension highlights individual potential beyond traditional stereotypes. The study contributes new academic insights by demonstrating how integrating gender perspectives into human resource development and social policy design can foster gender equality and enhance societal well-being.
References
สำนักงานสถิติแห่งชาติ. (2562). รายงานแรงงานหญิงชายประเทศไทย. กรุงเทพฯ: NSO.
Acker, J. (2006). Inequality regimes: Gender, class, and race in organizations. Gender & Society, 20(4), 441-464. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243206289499
Archer, J. (2006). Testosterone and human aggression: An evaluation of the challenge hypothesis. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 30(3), 319-345. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2004.12.007
ASEAN Committee on Women (ACW). (2021). ASEAN Gender Mainstreaming Strategic Framework 2021–2030.
Bachtrog, D., Kirkpatrick, M., Mank, J. E., McDaniel, S. F., Pires, J. C., Rice, W., & Valenzuela, N. (2014). Are all sex chromosomes created equal? Trends in Genetics, 30(9), 427-435. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tig.2014.08.003
Becker, J. B., Berkley, K. J., Geary, N., Hampson, E., Herman, J. P., & Young, E. A. (2005). Sex differences in the brain: From genes to behavior. Oxford University Press.
Bem, S. L. (1981). Gender schema theory: A cognitive account of sex typing. Psychological Review, 88(4), 354-364. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.88.4.354
Bem, S. L. (1993). The Lenses of Gender: Transforming the Debate on Sexual Inequality. Yale University Press.
Berdahl, J. L. (2007). Harassment based on sex: Protecting social status in the context of gender hierarchy. Academy of Management Review, 32(2), 641-658. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2007.24351879
Blau, F. D., & Kahn, L. M. (2017). The gender wage gap: Extent, trends, and explanations. Journal of Economic Literature, 55(3), 789-865. https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.20160995
Bronfenbrenner, U., & Morris, P. A. (2006). The bioecological model of human development. In W. Damon & R. M. Lerner (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology (6th ed., Vol. 1, pp. 793–828). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470147658.chpsy0114.
Buss, D. M. (1995). Evolutionary psychology: A new paradigm for psychological science. Psychological Inquiry, 6(1), 1-30. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327965pli0601_1
Bussey, K., & Bandura, A. (1999). Social cognitive theory of gender development and differentiation. Psychological Review, 106(4), 676-713. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.106.4.676
Butler, J. (1990). Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. Routledge.
Cahill, L. (2006). Why sex matters for neuroscience. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 7(6), 477-484. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn1909
Catalyst. (2020). Why Diversity and Inclusion Matter: Quick Take. https://www.catalyst.org
Cejka, M. A., & Eagly, A. H. (1999). Gender-stereotypic images of occupations correspond to the sex segregation of employment. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25(4), 413-423. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167299025004002
Cotter, D. A., Hermsen, J. M., Ovadia, S., & Vanneman, R. (2001). The glass ceiling effect. Social Forces, 80(2), 655-681. https://doi.org/10.1353/sof.2001.0091
Davidson, M. (2020). Gender nonconformity and its implications. Journal of Gender Studies, 29(4), 456-472. https://doi.org/10.1080/09589236.2020.1771332
Eagly, A. H. (1987). Sex Differences in Social Behavior: A Social-Role Interpretation. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Eagly, A. H., & Karau, S. J. (2002). Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders. Psychological Review, 109(3), 573–598. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.109.3.573
Eagly, A. H., & Mladinic, A. (1994). Are people prejudiced against women? Some answers from research on attitudes, gender stereotypes, and judgments of competence. European Review of Social Psychology, 5(1), 1–35.
Eagly, A. H., & Wood, W. (1999). The origins of sex differences in human behavior: Evolved dispositions versus social roles. American Psychologist, 54(6), 408-423. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.54.6.408
Eagly, A. H., & Wood, W. (2012). Social role theory. In P. A. M. Van Lange, A. W. Kruglanski, & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of theories of social psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 458-476). SAGE Publications Ltd.
Eccles, J. S. (1994). Understanding women's educational and occupational choices: Applying the Eccles et al. model of achievement-related choices. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 18(4), 585-609. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1994.tb01049.x
Eliot, L., Ahmed, A., Khan, H., & Patel, J. (2021). Dump the “dimorphism”: Comprehensive synthesis of human brain sex differences and overlaps. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 125, 667–697. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.02.026.
Finnemore, M., & Sikkink, K. (1998). International norm dynamics and political change. International Organization, 52(4), 887–917. https://doi.org/10.1162/002081898550789
Fitzgerald, L. F. (1993). Sexual harassment: Violence against women in the workplace. American Psychologist, 48(10), 1070-1076. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.48.10.1070
Fitzgerald, L. F., Gelfand, M. J., & Drasgow, F. (1995). Measuring sexual harassment: Theoretical and psychometric advances. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 17(4), 425-445. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15324834basp1704_2
Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. L. K. (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The Implicit Association Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(6), 1464–1480. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.6.1464
Hammond, W. P. (2012). Taking it like a man: Masculine role norms as moderators of the racial discrimination-depressive symptoms association among African American men. American Journal of Public Health, 102(S2), S232-S241. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2011.300485
Heilman, M. E. (2001). Description and prescription: How gender stereotypes prevent women’s ascent up the organizational ladder. Journal of Social Issues, 57(4), 657-674. https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-4537.00234
Hines, M. (2004). Brain Gender. Oxford University Press.
Hochschild, A. R. (1989). The Second Shift: Working Parents and the Revolution at Home. Viking.
Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture's Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions, and Organizations Across Nations (2nd ed.). Sage Publications.
Hyde, J. S. (2005). The gender similarities hypothesis. American Psychologist, 60(6), 581-592. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.60.6.581
International Labour Organization (ILO). (2022). Global Wage Report 2022–23: The Impact of Inflation and COVID-19 on Wages and Purchasing Power. https://www.ilo.org/publications/flagship-reports/global-wage-report-2022-23-impact-inflation-and-covid-19-wages-and
Joel, D., Persico, A., et al. (2020). Beyond the binary: The brain mosaic of sex/gender. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 21(10), 667–676.
Lytton, H., & Romney, D. M. (1991). Parents' differential socialization of boys and girls: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 109(2), 267-296. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.109.2.267
Maccoby, E. E. (1998). The Two Sexes: Growing Up Apart, Coming Together. Harvard University Press.
Maccoby, E. E., & Jacklin, C. N. (1974). The Psychology of Sex Differences. Stanford University Press.
McCarthy, M. M., & Arnold, A. P. (2011). Reframing sexual differentiation of the brain. Nature Neuroscience, 14(6), 677-683. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn.2834
McKinsey & Company. (2023). Women in the Workplace 2023.
McLaughlin, H., Uggen, C., & Blackstone, A. (2012). Sexual harassment, workplace authority, and the paradox of power. American Sociological Review, 77(4), 625-647. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122412451728
NSO. (2023). Thailand Labour Force Survey 2023. https://webapps.ilo.org/surveyLib/index.php/catalog/8628/data-dictionary/FA_THA_LFS_2023_FULL
Oakley, A. (1972). Sex, gender and society. Temple Smith.
OECD. (2022). Bridging the gender gap: Advancing women in leadership. https://www.policycenter.ma/podcasts/bridging-gender-gap-women-leadership
Pierson, P. (2000). Increasing returns, path dependence, and the study of politics. American Political Science Review, 94(2), 251–267. https://doi.org/10.2307/2586011
Rudman, L. A., & Glick, P. (2001). Prescriptive gender stereotypes and backlash toward agentic women. Journal of Social Issues, 57(4), 743–762.
Rudman, L. A., & Phelan, J. E. (2010). The double bind: Women’s success and backlash effects. Research in Organizational Behavior, 30, 61–79.
Rupp, L. J. (1997). Worlds of Women: The Making of an International Women's Movement. Princeton University Press.
Sadker, M., & Sadker, D. (1994). Failing at Fairness: How America's Schools Cheat Girls. Scribner.
Shore, L. M., Randel, A. E., Chung, B. G., Dean, M. A., Ehrhart, K. H., & Singh, G. (2011). Inclusion and diversity in work groups: A review and model for future research. Journal of Management, 37(4), 1262-1289. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206310385943
Signorielli, N. (1993). Television and adolescents’ perceptions about work. Youth & Society, 24(3), 314-341. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X93024003003
Spencer, S. J., Steele, C. M., & Quinn, D. M. (1999). Stereotype threat and women’s math performance. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35(1), 4–28.
Stacey, J. (1998). Brave New Families: Stories of Domestic Upheaval in Late-Twentieth-Century America. University of California Press.
Steele, C. M. (1997). A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance. American Psychologist, 52(6), 613-629. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.52.6.613
Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J. (1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(5), 797–811.
Tilly, L. A., & Scott, J. W. (1978). Women, Work, and Family. Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
UN Women. (2021). Ending workplace sexual harassment: Policy brief.
UNESCO. (2021). Cracking the code: Girls’ and women’s education in STEM in Thailand.
Walby, S. (2011). The Future of Feminism. Polity Press.
Willness, C. R., Steel, P., & Lee, K. (2007). A meta-analysis of the antecedents and consequences of workplace sexual harassment. Personnel Psychology, 60(1), 127-162. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2007.00067.x
World Economic Forum. (2024). Global Gender Gap Report 2024. https://www.weforum.org
Zell, E., Krizan, Z., & Teeter, S. R. (2015). Evaluating gender similarities and differences using meta-analysis. American Psychologist, 70(1), 10–20.